Perspectives on Language Maintenance, Language Shift, and Intergenerational Transmission among the Urdu-Speaking Community in the United States

Abstract

Studies of heritage language maintenance have proposed that when people immigrate to new places, they may find it challenging to preserve their native language, integrate into new cultural and linguistic landscapes, or both. This study examines such issues by offering an in-depth look at the dynamics of language maintenance among members of the Urdu-speaking community in the United States, centering on intergenerational language practices. With the emphasis put on the community’s perceptions, the study focuses on patterns of language use, language proficiency, and attitudes in order to determine the key factors forming the language situation of the community. In order to explore these themes, self-reported data were collected through a questionnaire and interviews with first- and second-generation Urdu speakers. The findings reveal that the participants express a wide range of attitudes toward several issues related to the study. They reflect a positive stance toward Urdu by describing it as a beautiful and eloquent language representing their identity, ancestors, history, and heritage. They declare that Urdu serves not only as a medium of communication but also as a vehicle for transmitting their culture, values, and beliefs. Thus, the participants display supportive attitudes toward their L1 retention and enhanced intergenerational language transmission. However, even though they manifest a profound sense of attachment to their religion, Islam, perceive it as a core value of their identity, and show that their religious beliefs and actions are aligned, they express disagreement and challenge the validity of the widely held claim that Urdu represents their religious identity. Instead, they consider Urdu to be the symbolic language of their culture. When it comes to English, they view it as an essential tool for their day-to-day affairs. Moreover, the analysis points out that the first- and second-generation individuals show differences in their responses to language domains and language proficiency. Although the interlocutor's identity is the driving force for language choice in all examined domains of language use, English appears to be used more excessively than Urdu, particularly among the second-generation group, even in domains specified for Urdu. As for language proficiency in Urdu, while both generation groups assess themselves better in oral language skills than in written ones, the first-generation group outperforms the second-generation one in all language skills. Informed by the results, the study draws attention to the challenge of promoting the intergenerational language maintenance of Urdu in the United States despite the fact that the community members hold positive attitudes toward Urdu and its preservation. This language maintenance is a challenge due to several factors, which include the excessive use of English even in Urdu domains, the inconsistent home language practices, the high degree of illiteracy in Urdu, the priority of learning languages other than Urdu, the exogamy among some community members, the infrequency of contact with the homelands, and the lack of institutional support.