PERSONAL AND CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON SAUDI PARENTS’ WILLINGNESS AND TOLERANCE FOR CHILDREN’S RISKY PLAY

Abstract

Objective: The purpose of this dissertation was to examine personal and environmental factors that influence Saudi parents’ willingness to promote, and tolerance of, risk taking in children’s play. In this dissertation, I tested a conceptual model that explains the transactions among multiple constructs: factors affecting parental risk willingness, coping efficacy, perceptions of child, and risk tolerance. I also introduced a new tool, the Factors Affecting Tolerance for Risk in Play Scale (FAC-TRiPS) to assess personal, social and cultural factors affecting parental tolerance for risk in play. Lastly, I examined variations between Saudi mothers and fathers in relation to their willingness to allow and tolerate risk in play. Importance: Risky play is defined as “thrilling and exciting forms of physical play that involve uncertainty and a risk of physical injury” (Sandseter, 2010, p.22). Benefits of children’s participation in “risky play” are broadly recognized (Barker et al., 2014; Brussoni, Olsen, et al., 2012; Gray et al., 2015; Sandseter, 2007; Sandseter & Kennair, 2011). However, most related research originates in Western countries; none focuses on outdoor play in Eastern countries, including Saudi Arabia. Further, while the literature identifies varying perspectives on risky play among parents, there is limited understanding of parental, social, and cultural contexts shaping and influencing Saudi parents’ tolerance of risk in play. Participants: The sample included 90 Saudi parents with children ages 7 to 10 years who were able to read and speak English. Parents of this age group are expected to accept risky play. iii Method: This cross-sectional, quantitative dissertation encompassed three studies. In the first study, I used moderation analysis to test a conceptual model examining the relationship among factors contributing to parents’ willingness to allow risky play and their risk tolerance. I also investigated the moderating effects of parental coping self-efficacy and parents’ perceptions of their children’s coping ability on the relationships among factors contributing to parents’ willingness to allow risky play and their risk tolerance. In the second study, I utilized Rasch analysis to explore evidence for construct validity and internal reliability of data gathered with the FAC-TRiPS. In the third study, I examined gender variations in Saudi parents’ willingness to promote, and tolerance for, risk taking in children’s play by answering two research questions: (1) Do Saudi mothers and fathers differ systematically on FAC-TRiPS items? and (2) How does the inclusion of gender influence the relationship among factors affecting parental perceptions of tolerance for children’s risky play? Results: Findings of the first study showed that play factors contributing to parents’ willingness to allow risk (e.g., fear of injury and fear of negative judgment) were negatively correlated with risk tolerance. Additionally, parents’ coping self-efficacy significantly moderated the relationships among play factors contributing to parents’ willingness to allow risk and their tolerance for encouraging children to engage in risk taking. That is, parents with high selfefficacy were more inclined to perceive less stress in such situations and were more apt to allow their children to engage in risky play. However, parental perceptions of their children’s coping ability did not have a moderating effect on the interaction between factors contributing to parents’ willingness to allow risky play, and their tolerance for, risky play. In the second study, preliminary analysis suggested that the FAC-TRiPS yielded valid and reliable data measuring factors influencing parents’ risk tolerance. Because the instrument in its early stages of iv development, further research with a larger sample is needed to refine items and enhance the instrument’s functionality and precision. In the third study, although parent gender did not significantly predict risk tolerance, Saudi mothers and fathers exhibited systematic differences on three FAC-TRiPS items. Mothers reported more fears surrounding potential negative judgment and repercussions from an authority while fathers were more influenced of Media reports. Within the context of other factors, gender appeared to play a complex and indirect role in determining parents’ risk tolerance. Conclusion: This research serves as a useful foundation for understanding the impact of context on parents’ willingness to promote children’s participation in risky play. Key themes across the three studies indicate that risk tolerance is likely influenced by a multitude of factors including personal, psychological, and cultural factors. This research represents the first to study a sample from Saudi Arabia, contributing an Eastern perspective to the existing body of research on risky play. Nevertheless, its findings invite further exploration into gender, societal, and cultural influences on how parents perceive and approach their children's participation in risky play environments. Additionally, further validation of the FAC-TRiPS and the Risk Tolerance model is needed. Findings of this research lend further support to the critical role of environmental facilitators and barriers on functioning as well as raise a need for creating a culture in which the duty of care is balanced with the dignity of risk in order to enable children of all abilities to participate in playful and age-appropriate risk-taking opportunities.