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Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://drepo.sdl.edu.sa/handle/20.500.14154/9648
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Item Unknown The Influence of TikTok Food-Related Content on the Eating Behaviour of Young Adults in Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia(Saudi Digital Library, 2025) Alsharari, Khalid Hail S; Feng, JuanThis research set out to explore how food-related content on TikTok influences the eating behaviours of young adults in Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia. Grounded in Social Cognitive Theory and informed by a structured review of global and regional literature, the study employed a quantitative design to examine behavioural trends, digital media engagement, and dietary motivations among a sample of 215 participants. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA. The findings revealed that frequent TikTok users were significantly more likely to try new foods, discover unfamiliar cuisines, and follow diet-related content creators. For example, participants who used TikTok for more than three hours daily reported higher motivation to explore new diets (p = .0003) and greater confidence in changing their eating habits (p = .0011) but also showed stronger appeal toward unhealthy food content (p < .001). These results highlight TikTok’s dual role in shaping both health-promoting and indulgent dietary behaviours. By focusing on an underrepresented region, the study offers contextual insights into how algorithm-driven content influences food choices among Saudi youth and provides a basis for more targeted health communication strategies. By situating this investigation within the underrepresented context of Al-Jouf, the study offers region-specific insights into how global platforms like TikTok are reshaping dietary perceptions even in semi-urban environments. Through its thematic analysis and theoretical framing, the research affirms key constructs of Social Cognitive Theory—namely observational learning, reinforcement, and self-efficacy—as relevant mechanisms in digital food culture. Furthermore, it identifies areas where health communication strategies could engage more effectively with youth through culturally relevant and visually persuasive content. While the study acknowledges its limitations, including the use of a non-random sample and reliance on self-reported data, its contributions are clear. It provides a foundation for future research on algorithm-driven health messaging in the Gulf region and highlights the growing need to understand how young people interact with food content in digital spaces. Ultimately, this research underscores the importance of aligning public health efforts with the evolving media environments that shape the everyday lives of young adults in Saudi Arabia and beyond.14 0Item Unknown The Impact of Job Burnout on the Performance of Non-Academic Staff(Saudi Digital Library, 2025) Alzahrani, Ahmed; O’Loughlin, TimJob burnout has emerged as a critical issue affecting employee well-being and organisational performance, particularly within the higher education sector. Despite substantial international research, limited studies have explored the relationship between burnout and performance among non-academic staff in Saudi Arabian universities. This study addresses this gap by investigating how job burnout influences the performance of non-academic employees at the public universities in Riyadh. The research aims to examine the extent and nature of burnout experienced by staff, identify its main causes, and assess its impact on individual performance outcomes. A quantitative research design was employed, using a structured survey distributed to a sample of non-academic staff across various administrative departments at the public universities. The survey collected information on demographic characteristics, burnout experiences (across emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, reduced personal accomplishment, job stress, work-life balance, and social support at work), and self-perceptions of job performance. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression modelling to examine the relationships between burnout dimensions and performance outcomes. The findings revealed a moderate level of overall job burnout among participants, with a weighted mean of 57.6%, alongside a moderate level of job performance effectiveness, with a weighted mean of 56.8%. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant negative impact of overall job burnout on job performance (R² = 0.756, p < 0.05). Among the burnout dimensions, job stress demonstrated the strongest negative association with job performance (correlation coefficient = 0.797, p < 0.05). These results highlight the critical need for organisational strategies to address job burnout, particularly by managing work-related stress and enhancing support systems for non-academic staff. Implementing initiatives such as workload management, employee engagement programs, and professional development opportunities may contribute to improved staff well-being and greater institutional effectiveness. Future research could benefit from longitudinal studies and broader cross-institutional comparisons within the Saudi higher education sector.16 0Item Unknown Evaluating Dispatcher-Assisted CPR: A Global Systematic Review and Observational Study in Asir, Saudi Arabia(Saudi Digital Library, 2025-06-17) Alshedidi, Ahmed Mohmmed; Zainab, AlqudahThis thesis evaluates the impact of Dispatcher-Assisted Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (DACPR) on bystander CPR rates and patient outcomes following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). The first part is a systematic review of 17 studies from Asia, Europe, and North America, demonstrating increased bystander CPR and improved survival outcomes associated with DACPR. The second part is a retrospective observational study conducted in the Asir region of Saudi Arabia, which assessed call recognition, language-related delays, and early outcomes using linked dispatch and EMS data. Findings show that language and dispatcher qualifications influence recognition time and early survival indicators. The study highlights the need for improved training and multilingual protocols in Saudi EMS systems.9 0Item Unknown Shared decision-making during pregnancy and childbirth in Saudi Arabia: A mixed-methods study(Saudi Digital Library, 2025-07-13) Alruwaili, Tahani Ali; Fooladi, Ensieh; Crawford, KimberleyBackground Shared decision-making (SDM) is fundamental to quality pregnancy and childbirth, representing a collaborative approach between healthcare providers (HCPs) and women. In Saudi Arabia's obstetrician-led maternity care system, the implementation of SDM and the experiences of women and their husbands remain understudied, particularly in the context of unique cultural, religious, and healthcare factors. Aim To explore women’s and their husbands’ experiences of shared decision-making with healthcare providers during pregnancy and childbirth in Saudi Arabia. Methods The study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design guided by the Three-Talk Model for SDM, which conceptualises SDM as a process involving team talk, option talk, and decision talk. The quantitative strand involved a nationwide, online survey conducted between January and May 2023, targeting women aged 18 and above who were either pregnant or had experienced pregnancy/childbirth in the past 12 months. Low to very low SDM and respect were defined as scores of ≤24 on the Mothers’ Autonomy in Decision-Making (MADM) scale and ≤49 on the Mothers on Respect Index (MORi), respectively. Using the same inclusion criteria, the qualitative strand conducted semi-structured interviews with women and husbands, recruited through convenient sampling from two maternity hospitals and social media. Interview data were analysed thematically and mapped onto the Three-Talk Model for SDM. Data from both phases were integrated during the interpretation phase to provide comprehensive insights into SDM experiences. Results The survey of 505 women revealed that 34.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 29.6–38.9) reported low to very low SDM. Statistical analysis identified significant factors associated with low SDM, including seeing different obstetricians of a different gender at each visit (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 2.0, 95% CI, 1.0–3.9), not meeting the same obstetrician throughout the pregnancy (AOR 2.6, 95% CI, 1.2–5.6), and having an instrumental vaginal birth (AOR 6.67, 95% CI, 1.6–28.1). A strong positive association emerged between low to very low SDM and reporting of low to very low respect (χ2 = 83.8173, p < 0.001). The qualitative data from 19 women and 5 husbands identified the following three major themes aligned with the Three-Talk Model: (1) Team Talk; communication and relationship building were limited by discontinuity of care, time constraints, language barriers, emotional readiness, and gender preferences; (2) Option Talk; information exchange highlighted the importance of clarity, despite reported insufficient details and perceived HCP biases towards intervention; and (3) Decision Talk; autonomy and SDM revealed varying levels of autonomy influenced by hierarchical healthcare structures, religious beliefs, and family involvement. Many participants mistook signing consent forms for engaging in SDM, indicating a gap in understanding of SDM processes. Participants’ experiences centred primarily on interactions with obstetricians, with minimal midwifery involvement. Conclusion The findings reveal challenges in implementing SDM within Saudi maternity care, including discontinuity of care, language barriers from non-Arabic-speaking obstetricians, gender preferences, and rigid institutional hierarchies. These findings highlight the need for healthcare reforms, including professional interpretation services, improved continuity of care, and exploration of midwifery-led models. Future maternity care policies should consider the complex interplay of religious beliefs and family dynamics when developing strategies to improve SDM in Saudi pregnancy and childbirth.24 0Item Unknown Enhancing Cardiac Arrest Management in Prehospital Settings in Saudi Arabia(Saudi Digital Library, 2025-06-02) ALSAHLI, MUSAAD; Bowles, Kelly-AnnAim: This study aimed to evaluate the current challenges and practices in managing out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) in Saudi Arabia, with a focus on improving bystander intervention through cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) use. The research sought to assess public knowledge, attitudes, and barriers to CPR and AED utilization to provide evidence based recommendations for strengthening prehospital cardiac arrest response. Methods: A Quantitative approach was employed, combining a comprehensive literature review with a cross-sectional survey. The literature review analyzed peer-reviewed studies, national reports, and international guidelines on OHCA management in Saudi Arabia and comparable contexts. The survey, conducted online, included 229 Saudi residents aged 18 years or older, assessing demographics, CPR knowledge, AED awareness, willingness to act, and perceived barriers. Data were analyzed descriptively, and logistic regression identified factors influencing bystander willingness to perform CPR. Results: The survey revealed that while 70% of respondents expressed willingness to perform CPR, only 33% were very familiar with CPR steps, and 48% recognized AEDs. Key barriers included fear of causing harm (54%), legal concerns (31%), and reluctance to perform mouth-to-mouth ventilation (12%). Prior CPR training and exposure to awareness campaigns significantly increased willingness to act (OR = 2.4, *p* = 0.05). Urban-rural disparities were noted, with rural areas exhibiting lower awareness of CPR campaigns (20% vs. 33% in urban centers). Qualitative feedback emphasized the need for practical training, increased AED availability, and legal reassurance to encourage bystander action. Conclusion: The study highlights critical gaps in public preparedness for OHCA response in Saudi Arabia, including insufficient CPR knowledge, low AED awareness, and persistent cultural and legal barriers. To address these challenges, the study recommends integrating CPR training into school curricula, expanding AED deployment in public spaces, launching nationwide awareness campaigns, and implementing dispatcher-assisted CPR protocols. Strengthening community engagement and leveraging technology, such as volunteer responder apps, could further enhance the "Chain of Survival" and improve OHCA outcomes. These measures align with global best practices and offer a roadmap for reducing preventable deaths from cardiac arrest in Saudi Arabia.30 0Item Unknown Mapping the Fashion Entrepreneurship Ecosystem in Saudi Arabia: Impacts on Entrepreneurial Orientation and Business Performance of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises(RMIT University, 2025-03) Alharbi, Marwah; Tan, Caroline; Quintero Rodriguez, CarolinaThis thesis investigates the influence of the Fashion Entrepreneurship Ecosystem (FEE) on Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) and Business Performance (BP) within fashion Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Saudi Arabia. The study adopts a mixed-methods explanatory design, integrating a quantitative survey with 223 fashion MSMEs and qualitative interviews with 15 ecosystem stakeholders. Drawing on the Resource-Based View (RBV), EO defined through innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking, is conceptualised as a core intangible resource that mediates the relationship between external ecosystem elements and firm success. The quantitative phase employed Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the direct and mediating effects of FEE on EO and BP. The results revealed that FEE has a significant positive impact on both EO and BP. EO also showed a strong direct effect on BP and partially mediated the relationship between FEE and BP. These findings underscore the strategic importance of EO in enhancing business outcomes and demonstrate the role of the ecosystem in shaping entrepreneurial capacities. The qualitative phase utilised thematic analysis to explore how fashion entrepreneurs and ecosystem actors experience and interpret the FEE. Key challenges identified include limited access to finance, insufficient entrepreneurial education, misaligned support structures, and persistent cultural stigma associated with fashion entrepreneurship. The study also highlights the mismatch between existing support services often designed for technology sectors and the specific needs of fashion startups. Additional barriers were found in rural accessibility, institutional support, and gendered constraints. Overall, the findings offer a context-specific understanding of the Saudi FEE and its role in shaping EO and BP. The research contributes theoretical insights into the RBV and EO literature and provides practical recommendations aligned with Vision 2030 to strengthen policy, education, and support mechanisms in Saudi Arabia’s creative economy.13 0Item Unknown An exploration of burnout in nurses working in intensive care in Saudi Arabia: An explanatory sequential mixed methods study(Saudi Digital Library, 2025-06-30) Altokhais, Abdulmajeed Saad; Principal supervisor, Professor Melanie Greenwood, and co-supervisor Dr Russell James.Nurses working in highly demanding and challenging environments, such as intensive care units, are prone to experiencing burnout compared to those in less demanding environments. In Saudi Arabia, the large number of nurses from other countries who work in intensive care contributes to the complexity of caring for critically ill people. Cultural complexity, high workloads and low morale may contribute to burnout in nurses, however how these factors affect nurse working in intensive care in Saudi Arabia is not well understood. Understanding these challenges, therefore, can help to mitigate burnout among nurses working in intensive care, improve patient outcomes, and assist recruitment and retention. This study aimed to investigate burnout among nurses working in the intensive care setting and to establish the factors which lead to burnout and which promote well-being and resilience among those nurses in Saudi Arabia. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design was used, and the data collection occurred across two phases. The first phase of the study sought to understand factors that contribute to nurses experiencing burnout. Paper-based questionnaires were distributed to nurses working in intensive care units across four tertiary hospitals in Riyadh, the capital of Saudia Arabia. The questionnaire contained two sections included the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey for Medical Personnel (MBI-HSS (MP)) scale used to explore the prevalence of burnout and the factors which contributed to the perception of burnout with the addition of participants’ demographic data and responses to the work characteristics questions. Data from the questionnaires were analysed using SPSS statistical software version 29. In Phase One, a total of 804 (80.4% response rate) nurses completed the questionnaire, with results indicating that more than half of the nurses experienced high levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, while more than half of those surveyed experienced moderate to low levels of personal accomplishment within the workplace. The analysis of demographic and work characteristic data, along with the MBI-HSS (MP) subscales, indicated that several factors may lead to burnout in nurses working within the intensive care setting. The demographic factors that contributed were gender, age, marital status, living arrangements, number of children, and nationality, while the work characteristics that contributed were work experience, type of intensive care, daily working hours, number of night shifts per month and number of patients per shift, attempts to maintain personal well-being, feeling stressed going to work, access to emotional support, feeling valued at work, salary satisfaction, and intention to leave. The findings from Phase One informed Phase Two, which used semi-structured interviews to delve deeper into and comprehend factors which led to nurses’ feelings of burnout and to identify their personal resilience against burnout. The interviews with consenting participants were undertaken online via Zoom or Microsoft Teams and analysed using a thematic analysis framework. In Phase Two, 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted with nurses who had completed the questionnaire and work in the intensive care setting. Three themes were identified from the thematic analysis: (i) “Being an intensive care nurse is challenging”; (ii) “The impact of the work upon me”; and (iii) “How I cope”. The first theme presented the nature of the work in intensive care settings in Saudi Arabia, highlighting the organisational challenges that participants encountered. The second theme reveals the physical, mental, psychosocial and professional impacts of working in intensive care in Saudi Arabia. The last theme captured the techniques participants used to cope with the challenges in the work environment. A pragmatic approach was used during data integration which influenced how this research was undertaken, presentation of the results and the structure of this thesis. Further, pragmatism helped explain the multiple realities that nurses encountered in their working environment in the intensive care setting in the cultural context of Saudi Arabia. The significant findings in this study are related to the unique cultural environment that exists in the nursing profession in Saudi Arabia and the interplay between the factors that contribute to and are protective against burnout. The contributing factors were the cultural and language challenges, which relied on nurses’ professional experience and adjustments to an altered scope of practice, and the protective factors, which included nurses’ capacity to build resilience, and how support systems created a complex dynamic that affected the participants’ performance and well-being. Whether nurses adapt or the environment adapts will be crucial in determining whether these nurses experience burnout or even leave the profession. Several recommendations stemming from this study are proposed to healthcare organisations, including policymakers, hospital leaders and nurse managers to improve work conditions in intensive care settings, which could potentially increase the adaptation to the work environment and, therefore, reduce burnout levels among nurses. In addition, it is crucial that stakeholders and hospital management understand the challenges that intensive care nurses encounter every day which impact their well-being as well as the quality of care. Policies and systems in hospitals, therefore, should be changed to help improve work conditions, which could potentially increase nurse retention and improve the quality of patient care.10 0Item Unknown Mapping the Fashion Entrepreneurship Ecosystem in Saudi Arabia: Impacts on Entrepreneurial Orientation and Business Performance of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises.(RMIT University, 2025-03) Alharbi, Marwah; Tan, Caroline; Quintero Rodriguez, CarolinaThis thesis investigates the influence of the Fashion Entrepreneurship Ecosystem (FEE) on Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) and Business Performance (BP) within fashion Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Saudi Arabia. The study adopts a mixed-methods explanatory design, integrating a quantitative survey with 223 fashion MSMEs and qualitative interviews with 15 ecosystem stakeholders. Drawing on the Resource-Based View (RBV), EO defined through innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking, is conceptualised as a core intangible resource that mediates the relationship between external ecosystem elements and firm success. The quantitative phase employed Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to test the direct and mediating effects of FEE on EO and BP. The results revealed that FEE has a significant positive impact on both EO and BP. EO also showed a strong direct effect on BP and partially mediated the relationship between FEE and BP. These findings underscore the strategic importance of EO in enhancing business outcomes and demonstrate the role of the ecosystem in shaping entrepreneurial capacities. The qualitative phase utilised thematic analysis to explore how fashion entrepreneurs and ecosystem actors experience and interpret the FEE. Key challenges identified include limited access to finance, insufficient entrepreneurial education, misaligned support structures, and persistent cultural stigma associated with fashion entrepreneurship. The study also highlights the mismatch between existing support services often designed for technology sectors and the specific needs of fashion startups. Additional barriers were found in rural accessibility, institutional support, and gendered constraints. Overall, the findings offer a context-specific understanding of the Saudi FEE and its role in shaping EO and BP. The research contributes theoretical insights into the RBV and EO literature and provides practical recommendations aligned with Vision 2030 to strengthen policy, education, and support mechanisms in Saudi Arabia’s creative economy.6 0Item Unknown Analysing Existing Saudi Arabian University Admission Criteria for Accounting Programs(Victoria University, 2025) Alboty, Yazeed; Farley, Alan; Yang, HelenThis research was motivated by the significant role played by effective admission criteria in predicting academic performance, particularly in Saudi Arabian accounting programs. The primary objective of this research is to investigate the appropriateness of Saudi Arabian university admission criteria for undergraduate and postgraduate accounting programs. First, for the bachelor accounting program, this research aims to explore how well existing admission criteria—which test different dimensions of prior knowledge—predict academic performance of accounting students based in Saudi Arabia. It evaluates the validity of the High School Grade Point Average (HSGPA) and College Entrance Exam (CEE)—that is, the General Aptitude Test (GAT) and Achievement Test (AT)—to predict student performance in the Preparatory Year Program (PYP), along with first-year core courses in the accounting program and First Year Grade Point Average (FYGPA) and overall Grade Point Average (GPA) of students at the end of the degree. It also examines how the business college PYP predicts performance in the first year, and overall student GPAs at the end of the degree. The role of gender as a moderator in these relationships is considered. This investigation is based on prior knowledge theory (PKT), which is characterised as a multidimensional, hierarchical entity comprised of various types of knowledge and skills. Tied to the above, for the Master of Accounting program, this research aims to evaluate how effectively one admission criterion predicts the relative academic performance of accounting students in Saudi Arabia. Specifically, it examines the impact of English language proficiency—as measured by International English Language Testing System (IELTS) scores—on the relative performance of Saudi Master of Accounting students in more versus less conceptually oriented accounting courses. This investigation is informed by cognitive load theory (CLT), which addresses the challenge of processing complex cognitive tasks with multiple interactive information elements. The findings demonstrated that when used as sole predictors, the explanatory variables (HSGPA, GA, and AT) all had statistically significant positive correlations with the dependent variables related to predicting academic performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that HSGPA was the strongest incremental predictor of academic performance, whereas GAT was the weakest, showing no significant incremental predictive power in most cases. This study demonstrates that HSGPA is the strongest predictor of both short- and long-term college outcomes in particular accounting disciplines. Further, the results consistently imply that the individual courses and GPA of the PYP in the business college have predictive value for academic performance. Additionally, the results indicate that gender does moderate the relationship between admission criteria and PYP and academic performance, which is significant in many cases. Last, the results show that English language proficiency measured by the IELTS alone has no significant direct effect on the relative academic performance of Saudi accounting students. Several implications can be drawn from this research for stakeholders and policy makers. It raises questions about the continued use of GAT score as an entry criterion and strongly supports gender-based differential entry criteria. In addition, it provides insight into the efficacy of the PYP.9 0Item Restricted A framework to adopt construction 4.0 in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Impact of Institutional Pressures, Ambidexterity and Organizational Resources on Intention to Adopt(University of Newcastle, 2025) Alyami, Abdullah; Thayaparan, Gajendran; Marcus, Jefferies; Tanvi, NewazConstruction 4.0 is the construction industry’s response to Industry 4.0, a technological revolution to adopt innovative methodologies and modern technologies to boost productivity and efficiency in modern workplaces. Construction 4.0 is driven partly by an accelerated pace of urbanization, the resulting heightened demand within the construction industry, and the construction industry’s reputation for lack of modernization. It marks a paradigm shift characterised by the integration of digital technologies, automation, real-time data, and artificial intelligence across all stages of the construction lifecycle. The extant literature suggests that Construction 4.0 adoption is influenced by organizational resources (technology, people, process, and education), ambidexterity (exploration and exploitation), and institutional pressures (normative pressure, memetic pressure, and coercive pressure). The predominant discourse of existing studies on the implementation of Construction 4.0 have focused on its impact on work procedures, project completion times, quality, and safety measures, despite the significant influence of organizational resources, ambidexterity, and institutional pressures on the successful adoption of Construction 4.0. Less attention has been paid to how internal organisational factors and external institutional forces interact to shape the strategic intent to adopt Construction 4.0 technologies. This study addresses this gap by investigating the influence of three critical constructs: organisational resources (technology, people, processes, education and training), organisational ambidexterity (exploration and exploitation capabilities), and institutional pressures (coercive, normative, and mimetic) on the intention to adopt Construction 4.0 within the Saudi construction industry. Hence, this study investigates the influence of organizational resources, ambidexterity, and institutional pressures on the adoption of Construction 4.0 in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ultimately, the study has developed a framework for implementing Construction 4.0 in the Saudi construction industry. This research developed a theoretical model proposing eighteen (18) hypotheses, based on theories related to strategic resources (Resource-Based View), strategic flexibility (ambidexterity), and institutional pressures (institutional theory) to understand their impact on Construction 4.0 adoption. A comprehensive literature review was conducted, and a conceptual model was developed to measure the influencing factors. A quantitative research methodology was adopted, underpinned by a positivist paradigm. Data was collected through a questionnaire completed by 261 professionals in construction organizations in Saudi Arabia. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was adopted to test the hypotheses, examine the relationships between variables, and validate the conceptual model. The results of the SEM confirmed 13 of the 18 hypotheses, revealing that institutional pressures significantly influence exploration orientation. This orientation, in turn, positively impacts key organizational resources—particularly human capital, education and training, and processes—needed for the adoption of Construction 4.0. The intention to adopt C4.0 was found to be most strongly influenced by the development of these organizational resources. Moreover, the study identified five dominant adoption pathways that integrate external institutional forces and internal strategic capabilities. These pathways offer a nuanced understanding of how adoption dynamics unfold in practice, especially in contexts undergoing rapid socio-economic transformation. These findings offer theoretical and practical contributions. Theoretically, it advances the discourse on digital transformation in construction by integrating three organizational theories into a single explanatory model. The integration of organizational theories provides a deeper understanding of Construction 4.0 adoption dynamics. Empirically, it provides evidence-based insights specific to the Saudi Arabian context, an emerging market undergoing rapid reform aligned with Vision 2030. Practically, the study offers an empirically validated framework tailored to the Saudi construction context, which can inform decision-makers, policy developers, and construction professionals seeking to enhance productivity through digital transformation in alignment with national strategic ambitions.16 0